THE AGE of NEO-CLASSICISM(1660-1798) (i) THE AUGUSTAN AGE or THE AGE OF POPE AND JOHNSON

 

THE AGE of NEO-CLASSICISM(1660-1798)

(i)               THE AUGUSTAN AGE or THE AGE OF POPE AND JOHNSON

(Arnold calls it as ‘an age of prose and reason’)

It is known as the ‘Classic’ age because the writers of this age were governed by set of principles and rules laid down by the ancients. The age of Pope was the golden age of English literature. The era may be divided into two periods, the first stretching from 1700 to 1745 generally known as the Augustan age or Age of Pope, and the second Transitional period which spans from 1745 to 1798 is known as ‘The age of Sensibility or Age of Johnson’. ‘Good Sense’ and ‘return to nature’ is the central theme of this period. Pope said, ‘the proper study of mankind in man’. Itis the literature of town and fashionable upper-class circle of the city of London.

The age of Jonson, commonly known as the age of transition, was disturbed and confused. It was characterized by a double tendency. The writers still adhered to the classical rules but in spirit their inclination was more towards romanticism.

 

Important Events:

1.   Clubs and Coffee House culture was flourished during this period.

2.   Trend of Circulatory libraries are famous in 18^th century.

3.   Rise of printing, cheapness of paper, rise of literacy – increased the readers

4.   Theatre Licensing Act/Censorship act 1737 – Lord Chamberlain was granted the ability to prevent/ modify/ perform any play. (It was abolished after 230 years in 1968.)

5.   Battle of Plassey 1757: Conquest of India began under the rule of General Clive.

6.   Trial of Warren Hastings for his wrong doings in Burma- procecuted by Burke was an failed attempt.

Note:

Impeachement of WarrenHastings- Essay by Maculay;

Impeachement of WarrenHastings (1788) – speech by Burke

 

The Four Wheels of the Van of the English Novel

The English novel as a defined and well-defined literary genre was founded by four novelists in the 18^th Century. As Sainsbury calls them the “Four Wheels of Novel Wain”. They are Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Tobias Smollett and Lawrence Sterne.

Samuel Richardson: He wrote all his novels in epistolary form. His fiction is known for sentimentality. He is famous for lady characters. (code Richardson = Pamela -Clari-sson)

                    

1.   Pamela or Virtue Rewarded (1740) – his first novel, Pamela - a poor maid is the protagonist of the novel, became victim of rape, brings change in antagonist Mr.B and marries him at the end. The story is said in a series of letters written by Pamela Andrews.

2.   Clarissa Or History of a Young Lady– his second novel and master piece. It is also in the form of letters, written by Clarissa to her friend Anna Howe and by Lovelace to his friend John Belford.

3.   Sir Charles Grandison – his last novel, he called it as ‘A Good Man’. It is a response to Fielding’s Tom Jones.

 

Henry Fielding (code Shamela..jo..jo…jo…Amelia)

He is famous for Hero characters

Scott called him as the father of English novel.

He defined novel as ‘comic epic poem in prose’

1.   An Apology for the life of Mrs.Shamela Andrews1741

First published under the name of Mr. Conny Keybar. It’s a direct attack on then popular novel Pamela 1740.  Shamela, instead of being a kind and chaste as servant girl Pamela, she is wicked, lascivious creature and former prostitute, entraps her master to marriage.

2.   The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and His Friend Abraham Adams (Joseph Andrews)1742– his first full length novel, began as a burlesque of the false sentimentality and conventional virtues of Richardson’s Pamela. It was the imitation of Cervantes, author of Don Quixote. Written in response to Pamela. (parody of Pamela). Our hero Joseph Andrews is the brother of Pamela.He was an apprentice to Sir Thomas Booby. Fanny Goodwill, a poor illiterate girl

3.   The history of the Late Mr. Jonathan Wild the Great (Jonathan Wild) – biography of a thief.In the end he becomes a priest.

Blueskin and Heartfree are characters

4.   Tom Jones (1749) – it is his third novel and his masterpiece consists of 18 books. Coleridge considered it as ‘the constructed work’. In the novel Tom Jones loves and marries with Sophia. The full title is: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling. Arnold Kettle commented that, “In Tom Jones, There is too Much plot”

5.   Amelia – his last novel, Fielding’s wife (good wife) is the heroine of the novel and the character of her husband Booth is based upon Fielding (bad husband) himself.

6.   A Journey from this World to the Next.

7.   Fieldings married ‘Charlette Cradock’. she became model for Sophia in Tom Jones &Amelia in Amelia.

8.   Henry Fieldings play ‘The Welsh Opera’ is presented as a tribute to the “Scriblerians”

 

Tobias Smollett: He was trained as a doctor but took to literature as his profession.

1.   The tears of Scotland- Jacobite poem (note: Farewell to Scotland by Burns)

2.   Roderick Random (1748)– his first notable fiction

3.   Peregrine Pickle – his longest novel. Retired Commodore Trunnion speaks only nautical language.

4.   Humphrey Clinker - the best and the most entertaining of his novels, written towards the end of his life and in a relaxed mood. Thackeray thought to be “the most laughable story that has been written since the goodly art of novel writing began”.

 

Laurence Sterne: ‘Yorrick’ the protagonist in his novels became his pen name.

1.   Tristram Shandy (1759-67) – his best experimental 9 volumes novel. Originator of stream of consciousness.  Sterns’ main concern “What passes in a man’s own mind. Unconventional novel. Begins with a birth and ends with birth. Highly unconventional in terms of style, narrative technique. Birth of hero appears in 3^rd volume. full of clowning, the funniest character uncle Toby appears in it.

2.   A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy by Mr. Yorrik – his second novel with sentimentality.

3.   Journal to Eliza: - collection of letters to his lover Mrs.Eliza.

Other Novelists

Daniel Defoe (1659-1731):  son of a butcher, the first true novelist. His works are called ‘Fictional Biographies’. He started a journal named The Review.

1.   The True Born Englishman – a popular verse satire in which he attacked those who opposed King William III on the ground that he was Dutch and not English.

 

2.   The Shortest Way with the Dissenters- Pamphlet, got imprisoned and pilloried because of this.

3.   Robin Crusoe (1719) –First English Novel:it is the exciting tale largely an adventure story. Based on the true story of Alexander Selkirk. Robinson Crusoe, the protagonist, shipwrecked in in island. Saved a man named ‘Friday’ from cannibals. (Crusoe…colonizer & Friday …victim of colonizer)

4.   Moll Flanders (1722)– prostitute- picaresque novel, full title is “fortunes and misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders who was born in Newgate, and during a life of continued vanity for 3 score years, besides her childhood, was twelve years a whore, five times as wife (whereof once to her brother) twelve years as thief, Eight years as transported Felon in Virginia at last grow rich, lived honest, died penitent.”

5.   Captain Singleton: he is a pirate

6.   Roxana: The fortunate Mistress - prostitute

7.   A Journey to the Plague Year- one man’s experience of Plague.

8.   Colonnel Jack1722 Picaresque novel can be considered as a crime fiction

Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774): Anglo-Irish writer- His shortlived periodical is “The Bee”

1.   Public Ledger orThe citizen of the world (1760): collection of letters.

2.   The Hermit – it is very interesting narrative poem of love that comes in the ‘Vicar of Wakefield”

3.   The Vicar of Wakefield (1776) : subtitle: ‘A Tale’-It is his only novel– the chief attraction of the novel is the honest character of its hero Dr. Primrose, his wife Deborah and their 6 children. Dr. Primrose is based on Goldsmith’s father.  Famous lines: “When lovely women stoops to folly, And finds too late that men betray”– about the 18^th century woman who has to die when they lost chastity. it comes in the ‘Vicar of Wakefield”.

4.   The Deserted Village (1760): poem – about the urbanization and massive destruction of farms in villages.

5.   Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog (1766)– an elegy. Famous quote:  “The man recovered of the bite, the dog it was that dy’d” The dog as we know is Clarissa Harlowe.

6.   She Stoops to Conquer (1773): sub title is “Mistakes of a Night”– Title alludes to Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s dream. The play begins with an actor mourns for the death of classical comedy. Kate Hardcastle, the heroine, is the daughter of Hardcastle, falls in love with Marlow. (Kate to conquer Marlowe). Mr. Hardcastle loves everything old, that is old books, old friends, old wine. Tony Lumpkin is a character who always plays mischievous tricks with others.

7.   The Good Natured man (1768): His first comedy, famous for the comical character ’Croker’.

Famous Quote: “Law Grinds The Poor And Rich Men Rule The Law”

Note: Goldsmith portrayed his own autobiographical character as ‘Moses’ in Vicar of Wakefield; ‘Heywood’ in Good natured man; and ‘Tony Lumpkin’ in She stoops to conquer.

Goldsmith wrote the biography of Thomas Parnel.

Jonathan Swift: Though of English parents, was born in Ireland a few months after his father’s death. Married to Esther Jonson, who is 8years old, appears in his poetry as “Stella”. His pen name was ’Issac Bickerstaff, Gulliver and MB Drapier.’

1.   The Battle of Books – Battle between books in King’s Library, discusses the disputes between ancient and modern writers. William Temple supports ancients & Charles Boyle supports Moderns. He coined the word ‘Sweetness and Light’ which was popularized by Arnold.

2.   A Tale of Tub – a brilliant satire on the churches. Story of Father (Christ) who gave a new coat (Christianity) to each of his three sons Peter (Roman Catholic), Martin (Anglican Church) and Jack (Calvinism). It is a religious allegory suggested by the work of Bunyan.

3.   Journal to Stella – a kind of private long book, for his love Esther Johnson.

4.   The Drapier’s Letters – It is a series of Seven pamphlets. Against the private minted copper coinage. he supported Irishrevolt in it.

5.   A Short View of the Present State of Ireland

6.   Gulliver’s Travels (1726)–his most popular work and it satirizes the manners and politics of contemporary Europe and England. Gulliver’s journey to 4 different lands in 4 books.

a)     To lilliput: Gulliver shipwrecked in an island where the inhabitants are about as tall as one’s thumb. Lilliput represent English people. Fight between Lilliput and Blefescadians represent Tories and Whigs. Battle between Littlendians and Bigendians represents Catholic and Protestant.

b)     Brobdingnag: Gulliver reaches where the inhabitants are Giants (very tall). Glumdalclitch is girl who looked after Gulliver here.

c)     Laputa: it is a flying island, satire on scientists and Royal Society who are obsessed with knowledge.

d)     Houyhnhnms: Land of talking horses. Satire on animal rights. Yahoos(man) represents servants, Houyhnhnms(horses) are masters.

7.   A Modest Proposal (1729)- for Preventing the Children of Poor People from being sold. He says, ‘I heartily hate and detest that animal called man’.

8.   Polite Conversation -humored satire on fashionable people.

Richard Steele: Irish writer: Described himself as an ‘Englishman born in Ireland’. He started the periodicals: The Tatler, The Spectator, The Guardian, The English Man, and The Reader. The imaginary character of Sir Roger de Coverley was very popular during the eighteenth century. (see The Spectators club in criticism notes)

1.   The Tatler (1709-11)- Periodical-- it used to appear thrice in a week (Tue, Thu, Sat)

2.   The Spectator (1711-12)–with Addison- he contributed 236 essays in it and issued it daily.

3.   The Guardian – it appears in March 1713 and was finished in October 1713.

4.   The conscious Lovers (1723)- most popular sentimental comedy.

 

Joseph Addison: He invented the Spectators Club

1.   The Tatler –- Periodical-he contributed 42 essays

2.   The Spectator- Periodical-he contribute 274 essays.

3.   The Guardian -- Periodical-he contribute 51 essays.

4.   Pleasures of Imagination (1712)- distinguishes pleasures of imagination- Primary(before us) and Secondary (absent from our sight/abstract)

 

TSRI- Tatler- Spectator- Rambler - Idler

The first English Daily newspaper is “The Daily Courant” in London 1702.

John Arbuthnot: satirist born in Scotland, Physician to Queen Anne.

1.   History of John Bull (1712): series of 5 pamphlets, advised to stop war with France, humored satire on Whigs.

Scriblerus Club (=Talentless Writer)-Pope, Swift, Gay, Arbuthnot and Parnell created this group. To satire false taste in learning. Martin Scriblerus is a comic character taken from Dryden. The nucleus of the club are Swift and Pope.

 

 

Alexander Pope (1688-1744):

In poetry Pope followed in the footsteps of Dryden. Alexander Pope was a son of a linen-draper was born in London, but passed his childhood at Binfield in Windsor Forest. No other poet except Shakespeare has given us so many quotations. He was short (4’6’’), suffered from Potts disease (a type of tuberculosis) that resulted in curvature of spine. When he was young, his voice was so pleasing, So Johnson called him as ‘The Little Nightingale’. He said, “I was born in London of an honest family. From twelve years of age I hardly ever left my studies on went to bed early in midnight"​

“Pope is a velvet lawn, shaven by Scythe, and levelled by roller’’- Dr.Johnson

“When he can in one couplet fix, More sense than I can do in six”- Swift

““If Pope be not a poet, where is poetry to be found?"- Dr Johnson in “Lives of Poets.”

1.   Pastorals (1709) – written only when he was 16 years old. Idealized country life, modelled on Virgil.

2.   Essay on Criticism (1711) – his first major literary venture, poems in heroic couplets, Called as “Neo-classical Manifesto.” (see criticism notes)

Famous lines are: 

“A little learning is a dangerous thing”.;        “For fools rush where angels fear to tread”,

‘’ For forms of Government let fools contest’’, “To copy nature is to copy them(ancients)’’,

“All truth is but right, unknown to thee”,       “To err is human, to forgive divine”.;

3.   Messiah (1712)- About the birth of Christ, based on Virgil’s 4^th eclogue.

4.   The Rape of the Lock (1712) – revised in 1714. it is mock heroic poem which satires fashionable (high) society and his best work. Baron cuts the hair of Belinda (based on Historical story of Lord Peter cutting the lock of hair of Arabella Fermour).

His famous line: ‘’The proper study of mankind is man’’

5.   Windsor Forest (1713): Windsor Forest is a royal hunting ground, metaphor for politics of the nation.

6.   The Temple of Fame: A Vision 1715 is an eighteenth-century poem by Alexander Pope, directly inspired by Geoffrey Chaucer's fourteenth-century poem The House of Fame

7.   "Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady 1717"- also called "Verses to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady", is a poem in heroic couplets. Speaker conversation with the spirit of an unnamed woman (the "lady" of the title)

8.   Three Hours After Marriage 1717 was a restoration comedy, as a collaboration between John Gay, Alexander Pope and John Arbuthnot, though Gay was the principal author.

9.   "Peri Bathous, Or the Art of Sinking in Poetry 1728" is a short essay ridiculed contemporary poets. Pope mentioned his quarrel with Theobald

10.  Dunciad (1728-43)– The King of the Dunces as the son of Dulness was based on George II and his wife. It is a bitter satire on the poets who annoyed him especially Theo Bald and Colly Cibber.

a.     The Dunciad 1728- first version- three parts- with Lewis Theobald as its "hero".

b.     The Dunciad Variorum 1729­

c.      The New Dunciad 1742- new fourth book conceived as a sequel to the previous three

d.     The Dunciad in Four Books 1743- revised version of four books with commentary with a new character, Bays, replacing Lewis Theobald with Colley Cibber.

11.  Essay on Man 1733–1734 – it discusses man’s place in the universe. Philosophical poem in heroic couplets. It is an effort to rationalize "vindicate the ways of God to man." It is dedicated to Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, hence the opening line: "Awake, my St John..."

Famous line:

“Man proposes but God disposes”-Alexander Pope.;

“An honest man is the noblest work of god”- essay on man

12.  Epistles to Dr. Arbuthnot 1733–1734: letter addressed to his friend Arbuthnot, when Pope learned that Arbuthnot was dying. Contains satirical portraits of Joseph Addison (Atticus) and John Hervey (Sporus). Pope’s statement “this long disease, my life,” was quite literally true, since Pope, in addition to being a dwarf and a hunchback, suffered from many diseases during his lifetime.

Famous lines are:

“Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike”,

“Damning with faint praise (To criticize someone or something indirectly)”

“Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel”

In which of his writings does Pope say that ‘his life was one long disease’? – Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

13.  Translations of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

14.  Ode on solitude 1700- poem- written at the age of 12 years- famous line: Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die;

John Gay

1.   Begger’s Opera – his famous work, described as a “Newgate Pastoral”. Captain Macheath and Polly Peacham became household names.

2.   Polly- a ballad, sequel to it.

3.   Trivial or The Art of Walking in the Streets of London: a parody of Virgil’s Georgics.

4.   The Shepherd’s Week- parody.

 

Graveyard School of Poetry: or Churchyard poets: themes of death, sorrow, mortality.

Edward Young

1.   Night Thoughts:  His famous quotes from Night Thoughts were: “Procrastination is the thief of time”, “At thirty man suspects himself as a fool”

Thomas Gray

1.   Elegy Written on a Country Churchyard – with this elegy he endeared himself to millions all over the world.

Thomas Parnell:

1.   Night Peace on the Death(1721): Grave yard poetry

 

Robert Blair: Scottish poet-

1.   The Grave (1743) - is a blank verse poem, is one of the major poems of the so called ‘Graveyard School’. This poem, in a later printing, was illustrated by William Blake.

 

THE AGE OF JONSON: PROSE (ESSAY)

Samuel Johnson (1709-84): He is a critic, poet, biographer and lexicographer. He was the most prominent figures in the literature of 18^th century. He married a widow some twenty years older than himself. In London he began writing the Gentleman’s Magazine. He is known as ‘’Father of Historical Criticism”

1.   Messiah 1728—a translation of Alexander Pope’s Messiah into Latin.

2.   London (1738): Against the corruption of the court at King George-II, Imitation of Juvenal’s 3^rd Satire.

3.   Defense of 1737 theatres licensing act: prose work,

4.   The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749)- emphasizes Philosophy over Politics., Imitation of Juvenal’s 10^th Satire.

5.   Irene, a tragedy 1749- only drama by Johnson. Famous line: ‘’The end of writing is to instruct; the end of poetry is to instruct by pleasing’’

6.   A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) – took around 9 years to complete, included 42773words. which remained the standard English dictionary for a century. Introduced humorous definitions: Ex: “Oats is a grain which in England is generally given to horse, but in Scotland supports people.”

7.   The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia 1759- originally titled The Prince of Abissinia: A Tale- original working title was ‘The Choice of Life’- A novel– he wrote this to pay for his mother’s funeral expenses and some other debts. Famous lines: ‘while you are making the choice of life, you neglect to live’; “Marriage has many pains, but celibacy has no pleasures.”

8.   Journey to the Eastern Islands of Scotland 1755– account of his 83 day journey to the Hebrides with Boswell.

9.   The plays of William Shakespeare 1765- (see criticism notes)

10.    The preface to the plays of Shakespeare (1765)- 8 volumes- the most valuable contribution to the literature of criticism. Johnson examined the faults of Shakespeare as: Shakespeare sacrificed virtue to convenience. His plots are loosely connected. No attention at 3 unities. His diction is pompous.

11.    Lives of the Poets 1779-81- full title is Lives of the most Eminent English Poets– Lives of 52 poets beginning with Cowley were arranged by date of death. It is the largest single work of practical criticism in English. According to Arnold Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, Gray and Swift are important

Famous Lines: “Pope be not a poet, where is poetry be found” --- in life of Pope;

“About the beginning of 17^th century, a race of writers termed as Metaphysical poets...” In life of Cowley.

 

Periodicals:

Ø  The Rambler  1750-52

Ø  The Idler 1758-60 – periodical- 103 essays- 12 by Johnson- attained high literary reputation

 

James Boswell:

1.   The Life of Johnson (1791) – the greatest biography in English.

 

Eighteenth Century Letters:

The most famous letter writers of the century – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Lord Chesterfield, and Horace Walpole – were all persons of quality.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: She was the eldest daughter of a Whig Earl who later became the Duke of Kingston.

Lord Chesterfield: Philip Dormer Stanhope, fourth Earl of Chesterfield. The youngest son of Sir Robert Walpole. His famous quote: “this world is a comedy to those who comedy, a tragedy to those who feel”.

The Age of Johnson: Prose

Edward Gibbon: Historian

1.   Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776)–6 volumes- about the greatness of Rome. - signaled American and French revolutions. the noblest monument of historical writing in the English or perhaps in any language. It was published in 6 volumes. It covers the history from 98 to 1590(1500 years Romans History)

 

Edmund Burke (1729-1797): English Philosopher

1.   A vindication of Natural Society (1756):

2.   Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful (1757): beauty is from pleasure, sublimity is from pain., advocates pain is stronger than pleasure.

3.   Reflections on the French Revolution (1790): against French revolution, believed ordered liberty and degree of social control is necessary.

4.   Impeachment of Warren Hastings: his famous speech

 

Thomas Paine: English-American political theorist

1.   Rights of Man (1791)- supported bloody French revolution

2.   Commonsense (1776)- American independence against British monarchy.

 

David Hume: The great Scottish philosopher.

1. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748):

 

Adam Smith: The founder of the science of Economics or Political Economy.

1.   Wealth of Nations (1776): full title: An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

 

George Berkeley: Anglo Irish Philosopher

1.Alciphron or Minute Philosopher:

 

Sir William Blackstone

1.   Commentaries on the Laws of England.

 

William Law

1.   Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life – it is perhaps the most inspiring and influential book on religion ever produced in England.

Richard (Brinsley Butler) Sheridan (1751-1816)

Long term owner of the Druary Lane theatre. His plays are known as Anti Sentimental Comedies.

1.   Rivals (1775)– comedy of manners- Rivalry in the play is related to Lydia’s love, between Captain Absolute and Esgin Beverely (both are one and same). central character: Mrs. Malaprop.

2.   The School for Scandal: Lady Sneer well is a rich widow and chief of the scandal(=Rumors) group. Mr. Snake is the servant who spreads scandals. Mrs.Candour is a deaf character, who always asks “Has Miss Pipers had Twins?”

Fanny Burney:

1.   Evelina or The History of a Young lady’s entrance into the world 1778: 3 volumes epistolary novel, started in Bristol., Heroine comes out in society in 2 locations Bristol, London

2.   Cecilia or Memoirs of an Heiress 1782

3.   Camilla or A Picture of youth 1796

4.   The Wanderer or Female Difficulties 1814:    Historical novel with Gothic overtunes, story of a mysterious woman who attempts to support herself while hiding her identity.