literary criticism from Philip Sidney to Mathew Arnold

Literary criticism from Philip Sidney to Mathew Arnold

First regular critics are: Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham, Thomas Wilson (three Cambridge friends).

-they advocated English as means of common language in times of Latin domination.

1) John Cheke: -advocated English should be written pure and clear.

2) Roger Ascham: -Taxophilus (lover of the bow) is a book on school for shooting, dedicated to Henry-VIII.

-School Masters (1568) advocates effective method of teaching Latin prose.

-"Writing English matter in the English tongue for English men"

3) Thomas Wilson: 

-'Art of rhetoric' is the first book on system of criticism. 

-It advocates Plain and Lucid style for prose, free from obsolete/strange words.

Second group of critics (Aeropagus club) are: 

Sidney, Gabriel, Harvey, Spencer, Dyers.

- concerned with study of prosody.

Philip Sidney (1554-1586):

-wrote 'Apology for poetry' or ’Defense of poesy(1595) in response to Stephen Gosson's 'The school of Abuse'

-Greek apologia = an argument in defense.

- It is an epitome of Renaissance criticism.

-Reason for two titles is of its complicated publishing.

-it is an earliest work of literary criticism in English literature.

-Dramatic criticism  begins with him in England.

-It is the first work to apply classical rules to the poetry.

-He argues 'poetry is oldest of all branches hence superior'

-poetry is the first light giver to ignorance. (first to give knowledge).

-poetry is an art of imitation (same opinion as Aristotle)

-poet imitates in order to both delight and teach.

7parts:

1. “Exordium” or Introduction

2. Narration

3. Divisions

4. Examination

5. Refutation

6. Digression

7. "Peroration" or conclusion 

 Charges against poetry and Sydney's defense:

i) Poetry is useless and is a waste of time- Sydney says poetry is conducive and virtuous.

ii) Poetry is mother of lies (Stephen Gosson) - Sidney says ''poet nothing affirms and therefore never lieth.''

iii) Poetry has a corrupting influence and makes men effeminate as its just main theme is love - Sidney says "modern poetry is a vicious treatment of love but love itself is not bad and admits misuse of love is fault."

iv) Poetry should be banned from ideal republic (Plato) - Sidney says ' Plato was not against poetry,  Plato regarded poets as a light unwinged and sacred thing"

 

Stephen Gosson's 'The school of Abuse (1578)'

-dedicated to Sydney without his permission.

-it is a pleasant invective against poets.

-He says "poets are pipers, players, jesters, and such caterpillars of a commonwealth"

-The book denounces poets as the ‘fathers of lies’ and the theatre for robbing Greece of gluttony, Italy of wantonness, Spain of pride, France of deceit, and Dutchland of quaffing’

- He reminds Plato and said "to banish poets from commonwealth"

-Since drama is of pagan origin and males playing a female roles is against nature.  He denounced drama and says tragedy and comedy weakens moral fibre.

 

CRITICISM IN ELIZABETHAN'S AGE 

1. Art of Rhetoric (1553) by Thomas Wilson 

– probably the first work of criticism in English language. 

 

2. Certanye Notes of Criticism (1575) by Gascoigne.

-first English manual of versification (about making rhyme) 

-Poet must find a middle ground between 'haughty obscure verse' and 'verse that is too easy'

 

3)Discourse of English Poetry (1586) - by William Webbe 

-Attempts to historical survey of poetry, metre.

- about scarcity of good English Poetry (Abuses tinkerly verse) 

 

4) Art of English Poesie(1589)- By Richard Puttenham

-Tries to establish English vernacular poetry as an art.

-Most ambitious and comprehensive undertaking in Elizabethan •

- appreciates "Wyatt & Surrey as "The first reformers" in our English metre & style"

 

5) Observations in the Art of Poesie (1602) - Thomas Campion

- English tongue receives 8 Kinds of meters.

-classical meters fitted English tongue better than vulgar, artificial rhyming 

-about type of best verse forms, method to count number of syllables.

 

6) Defence of Rhyme (1603) - Samuel Daniel

-Reply to Campion's work 

-Rejected blindly following classical methods.

 

Ben Jonson: 

 -classicist, influenced by Greek & Roman.

- says poetry both delights & instructs. -considers that judgment of poets to be the function of poets - not of a critic. 

-Johnson says to achieve excellence, a writer must read the works of best writers. 

-He foreshadowed 'Neo-classicism'.

-"Discourses" is the critical work of Ben Jonson -Expounds the theory of "comedy of Humours" in Every man in humour. 

- He gave Structure & Coherence, A firm Plot, clear characterization to comedy 

-'Humour' means liquid in Latin [4 liquids in human body] 

-His pleasure reconciled to virtue( play) influenced Milton's Camus' (mosque)

- Anti Masque was invented by Johnson.

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NEO-CLASSICAL (Based on External thought)

-From Middle of 17th century to end of 18th Century

-Believes that writer must follow ancients & Poetry must be didactic.

 

Dryden:

He found it (English) brick and left it marble - Dr.Johnson

Father of English Criticism - Dr.Johnson

An Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668).

- Johnson said it is that modern English prose begins here

-It is work of Legislative criticism because it contains Author's Judgment.

- It is written as a series of debates on drama by four speakers Eugenius (D'Avenant), Crites (R. Howard), Lisideins (Roger Boyle) and Neander (Dryden himself)

-Eugenius(=well born) supports moderns, 

-Crities supports ancients and applauds Three unities (Unity of time, place and action), prefers Ben Johnson, 

-Lisideins praises French drama as superior

-Neander prefers Shakespeare as best

-refused to be abide by the rules of classical masters.

-He observed Ben Jonson's play 'Epicoene or Silent Woman' and says it follows 3 unities and it has continuity of scenes, it us faultlessly contracted. -Compared modern literature with Greek & Latin -He compared writer to writer

Dryden is the Founder of descriptive criticism.

He compared:

-Ben Jonson to Virgil and says he is more correct poet;  

-Shakespeare to Homer, and says he is greater Poet.

-I admire him (Jonson), but I love Shakespeare" Dryden"

- He is pioneered in comparative, Historical, Descriptive & Practical criticism.

- Says Shakespeare is the father of our dramatic poet (Largest soul- Naturally learned)

-Says Jonson as the Most learned and judicious writer which theatre ever had' 

-Neander favor moderns but doesn't disparages ancients - He Prefers English drama.

Neander defends Tragicomedy [It is s Dryden's own phrase] to English Drama.

- "What pleases the Greek, would not satisfy an English audience" 

-The English have perfected a new way of writing not known to Ancients !

 

POPE (1688-1744)

-Suffered from TB to spine (Potts disease), hump back toad- 4feet 6inch tall

-His voice, when he was young, was so pleasing that he was called in fondness the “Little Nightingale.”

- He was expelled from school for writing satire on teachers.

-He wrote Essay on Criticism (1711) -known as Neo-classical Manifesto.

-Famous lines in it are: 

--"Whoever thinks a faultless place to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." 

--For fools rush in, where angels fear to tread. 

-- "A Little learning is dangerous thing"

--"To err is human, to forgive is divine"

--"Be Homer's works your study and delight, Read them by day and meditate by night" (He praises Homer, he finds unequal fire and rapture in him.)

-Defines criticism as "true taste", "gift of nature".

-Says "Great chain of being" - from God to Angels to man to Animals and Plants 

-Men not afraid of God, afraid of me - Pope in Imitations of Horace] him

 

Other works by Pope:

-"Preface to the Translation of the Iliad"

- "Preface to the works of Shakespeare"

-Essay on Criticism modeled on Horace's Ars Poetica.

it has 3parts: 

1)General Observations on art of criticism.

2)Causes of wrong Criticism

3)Rules for the critic

 

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784).

- He meticulously looked for the correctness of "form"

Johnson feels epic poetry is best, He approved Tragicomedy. 

"The end of writing is to instruct, the end of poetry is to instruct by pleasing" Dr. Johnson.

- George Watson called Johnson "The Father of historical criticism in English!

 

His works:

-  Dictionary of the English Language (1755),

- He took 9years to compile it, 

- one of the most influential dictionaries in history.

 

  Lives of the English Poets (1783)

--He is the frost biographical critic 

---52 biographies in the order of date of death. 

-- According to Mathew Arnold, six are important: Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, Swift, Gray.)

 

-8 Volumes edition of Shakespeare (1765)

--He observed "Macbeth" play of Shakespeare

He finds faults of Shakespeare "Preface to Shakespeare"

i) Shakespeare sacrifices virtue of to convenience 

ii) No attention on unities of time & place

iii) Plots are loosely constructed

iv) Diction is pompous.

v) Shakespeare followed only Unity of Action 

 

Joseph Addison (1672-1719)

-Contributed much to the development of the essay form.

 - Wrote "Pleasures of Imagination"

- Imagination 2types:

        1)Primary-is limited to Images/objects in sight only

        2)secondary- Images/objects absent from sight

-Published several articles in Tatler & Spectator

-Approves Tragicomedy, since it is not dangerous.

-Emphasized the Judgment in literature depended on Taste

 

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Romantic Era (Based on Internal Thought)

Burke (German) 

-Laid emphasis on inner life & inner experience in his "Sublime & beautiful (1956) 

Kant (German)

- Critique of Judgment (1990) is based on concept of purposiveness, we must judge. -Critique of practical reason (1988),

-Critique of Pure reason, ( 1781-90) 

Hegel

-influential advocate of Historicism. 

-other works: "science of logic" "Encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences", "lectures on religion history", "lectures on Aesthetics", "lectures on philosophy,"

Schlegel (German).

-distinction between classicism (ordered world)& Romanticism(Creation of New).

- used the word "Romantic"- for the first time. 

 

Wordsworth:

-Lyrical Ballads (1798) 

-Preface to lyrical ballads (1802) called as Manifesto of Romantic criticism"

-Finds no difference b/w poetry & prose (Only difference is meter) 

-Defines "poetry as spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and emotions collected in tranquility"

-Imagination is the creative faculty; Fancy merely associative and decorative.

-Imagination is the power of depicting and fancy of yoking and combining 

-For the first time, discriminated difference b/w   Imagination and fancy.

 

Theory of Poetic Diction - Wordsworth.

-Poetic Diction-first used by Aristotle in Poetics

-refers to the style of writing used in Poetry.

-avoiding unusual words; over use of strange words. 

-Certain admixture of unfamiliar terms is necessary 

- Lyrical Ballads (1802) suggested to eliminate this poetic diction.

- Neo classical Poets advocated that the language of Poetry was differ from the language of prose, where as Wordsworth declared that there is no difference b/w them (Neoclassical poetry was decorative)

- Wordsworth proposed "Language of poetry must be near to the Language of men"

-He says "Poet is a man speaking to men, so he must use the Language of real men" 

-This idea is more influential, though more in theoretical than in Practice.

 - He rejected the usage of unusual words, especially the mechanical use of figures of speech"

 -"Poetry sheds no tears, such as Angles weep,  but natural and human tears"- Quoted John Milton's Paradise lost.

    - i.e., No difference between poetry & prose.

    - Poetry is not written by angles in heaven, but composed by man for pleasures of man on the earth.

-The idea of special poetic vocabulary mode of metaphor persisted in 19th century, was deplored in 20th Century.

-Modernist poets who proposed that there is no such thing as a 'prosaic' word unsuitable for poetry.

 

 

Coleridge

- Biographia Literaria (1817)

-Theory of Imagination: 2 types

1)Primary imagination:

- It is necessary imagination

-universal, processed by all

-Mysterious power which extracts hidden ideas

 which extracts hidden ideas and meanings

 -Living power,

-Prime agent in perception.

2)Secondary Imagination: 

- the Echo of first.

 -Poetic vision

-only with artists.

-magical power

Note: Fancy is only memory, inferior to imagination which is creative.

 It only combines things into different shapes

 

Terms coined:

-"Willing suspension of disbelief"

- "Poetic faith"

 -“Suspension of disbelief” was a choice, a provisional one, a person did not have to suddenly believe in ghosts or spirits to be moved by poem, such choice constitutes "Poetic Faith".

-Exponent of theoretical criticism.

 -Fancy is the aggregative and associative power 

-Imagination is shaping and modifying power (esemplastic power) into a unified whole

 

 

Shelly

-A defense of Poetry (1821)

-written in response to Peacock's 4 Ages of Poetry.

(Iron Age-old Warriors; Gold- Noblest; Silver- Artificial/imitative; Brass -Decay)

- Differentiates between:

 1) Reason - Is a logical thought 

  2) Imagination is a perception

-Shelly states poetry is the expression of the imagination 

-Shelly says poetry both pleasures & instructs.

 "Poet in our time is a semi-barbarian in a civilized society"

 - in "Four Ages of poetry" - in Love Peacock. Response to Shelly.

 

John Keats

-Coined the term ‘Negative Capability’ in a letter to George & Thomas Keats. (21st Dec 1817

-best example for Negative capability "Shakespeare"

 -If poetry comes not as naturally as leaves of a tree, It had better not to come at all' -In a letter to John Taylor (27-Feb-1818) 

-term 'Egoistical Sublime' us to describe Wordsworth's genius.

 

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Victorian Era

In Victorian Era, 2 main schools were there

1) Art for Life's sake - (School of Plate) - Ruskin, Carlyle.

2) Art for Art's sake -(School of Aristotle) -Walter Pater, Oscar Wilde

Note: Mathew Arnold - comes in b/w these two

 

Art for Life's Sake (Plato)

 

John Ruskin:

- coined the term "Pathetic Fallacy" in Ruskin's Modern Painters

- Pathetic Fallacy is to treat the objects as if they have human feelings.

 -His works: "The seven Lamps of Architecture" "The stones of Venice"

 

Carlyle

-Wrote "French Revolution (3 volumes)", "Past & Present", "Critical Essays"

 

Art for Art's Sake (Aristotle) 

Walter Horatio Pater

- Defined Criticism as "The art of interpreting art" 

- Walter Pater's  "Renaissance: study in Art & Poise" - is called as Golden Book" by Oscar Wilde.

-  Work of Art is beautiful entity, without any moral (or) social purpose

 

Oscar Wilde:

- His famous plays: "Importance of being Earnest (1895)" An Ideal Husband (1895)

- "Critic as an Artist (1891) - proposed Antithesis b/w Art & Criticism.

- says criticism is itself an art.

- Aesthetic School use" Mot Propre, Mot Juste (means precise expression)" to convey the meaning intended.

 

Mathew Arnold

- called as "Critic's critic"; Professor of poetry at Oxford. 

-He is a moralist, first English critic to insist on comparative criticism,

-"Arnold didn't belong to Art's for life's sake & Art for Art's Sake

- He is concerned about the "Standards of Morality”

- He says" Poetry itself is the criticism of life- All great Literature is at bottom, a criticism of life-

- In "Culture & Anarchy - He describes culture as" study of perfection”

- says poetry should possess "truth & High seriousness"

- He borrowed "High seriousness" from Aristotle, who said Poetry is superior to history.

- He finds seriousness in the works of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, Spencer

- He seeks to bring harmony b/w Hebraism & Hellenism - (It is in chapter 4 of Culture and Anarchy)

- [Hellenism = knowing:  Hebraism doing] 

-Arnold rates Chaucer higher than Gower

- He concluded "With him is born our real poetry (Chaucer)"

-Philistines is derived from a German student.

-He divided human society into 3 classes.

1. Barbarians - Rich/Aristocrats;  

2. Philistines -Middle class/ Business, Money making; 

3. Populace Working = Raw & Undeveloped.

 

-He rejected Romantics and Elizabethans

-He popularized the phrase "Sweetness & Light" which was coined by Swift in The Battle of Books".

- Sweetness & Light means Beauty & Wisdom that culture adds to life-

- He famously defined culture as "the best that has been thought and said - in the world' - Culture and Anarchy (1869)

 

 

Function of criticism at the present time (1864)- Arnold

Criticism is referred as the "disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world.  -In The Function of Criticism essay

- Function of Critic is to pave the way for High Cature.

--Criticised romantics and called:

Byron - was empty of matter

Shelly- was incoherent (beautiful & ineffectual Angel beating in the void his luminous wings in vain)

Wordsworth- wanting in completeness & Variety 

(Nature herself took the pen out of his hand and wrote with a bare, sheer penetrating power.)

Coleridge - a poet & philosopher wrecked in the mist of opium

-Keats- his letters are love letters of a surgeon's apprentice

 

--Low Opinion on

Carlyle- as a moral desperado

Ruskin -eccentric

Swinburne - a pseudo Shelly

 

--High Opinion on

Dryden- Puissant and Glorious founder

Pope- splendid high priest 

"Pope Dryden are not poet classics, but the prose classics of the 18th Century' - In 'Study of poetry'

-Tennyson's "Maud" - is a lamentable production 

-Function of criticism is to flourish 2 powers - creative & critical. Says creative power is greater than critical.

-Alexandrine & Couplet are inadequate for poetic expression 

-He even censored his own collection of poetry on moral grounds, so he omitted the poem named Empedocles of Etna from 1853 collection [It's in 1832].

- He took Aristotle's view - greatness of poetry - truth & High seriousness- 

 

The Study of Poetry (1880):-Touch stone method. 

-Borrowed it from M.Vijet's (French critic) historical estimates in Commenting Chanson De Roland 

-Touch stone method is for judging the volume of works by comparing

- introduced in “The study of Poetry (1880)”

- introduced scientific objectivity to critical evaluation by providing comparison & analysis as the two primary tools for judging individual poets.

-He says critic not to be affected by historical and personal Judgments 

-Arnold recommends certain lines of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Milton as Touch stone for testing the presence (or) absence of high poetic quality.

-"Poetry is superior to history" in his Study of Poetry" 

-"Poetry is a criticism of life under curtains" - Arnold

 

Arnold's poets are: 

Homer, Sophocles in ancients

Dank Milton, Goethe Wordsworth - in moderns

- Arnold puts Wordsworth in the front rank not for his poetry, but for his criticism of life.

-Chaucer, Dryden Pope and Shelly fall short of best because they lack High seriousness". 

-Even Shakespeare thinks too much of expression & too little of conception.

- He argues even a single line or selected passage (quote) will be used for comparison. 

-"If he is a dubious classic, let us shift him; If he is a false classic, let us explode him"- about False Vs Dubious critics.

 

Two of his best known touch stones are

1. Dante's Paradiso-III - "In his will is our peace" 

2. Milton's Paradise lost -- "which cost serves all that pain to seek her through the world."

Other Touch stones are:

From Classical Texts:

1. Helen's words about her wounded brother

2 Zeus addressing the horses of peleus

3. Supplicant Achilles words to priam 

4. from Dante Ugotino's brave words; 

5. from Dante Beatrice's loving words to Virgil. 

From Non-Classical texts:

6 Henry IV, part -II - Henry's expostulation with

7. Hamlet I, part-I- Absent thee from felicity awhile

8. Milton's Paradise Lost-Book-I- Book--

9. Milton's Paradise Lost-Book-IV- Book--

 

-He divided Poets into 4 categories:  The Good,  The Great, Not so good & Not so great

- Says Historical, personal estimate destroys the real estimate, so use touch stone.

 

On Translating Homer  (1861)(3 lectures)

-There lectures attacks Francis Newman's Translating of Homer

-In "On Translating Homer" he says 

    Homer's Iliad is best model for-- simple and grand style

    Milton's Paradise Lost--  Severe grand style

    Dante's  Divine Comedy --Simple & Severe.

-Says "Great style arises when a noble mature, gifted poet treats with simplicity or with severity a serious subject""

-It also offers critical analysis of several other translations by Cowper, Pope, Chapman.

- Says four items are necessary for a good translation.

1)It must be rapid 

2)plain direct in syntax and words 

3)plain & direct in substance of thought and

4)Noble

-In his 2nd lecture he says, translation must reproduce the general effect of original.

-In his 3rd lecture he suggests, hexameter is suitable for translating homer.