Structuralism 1960s

 Structuralism 1960s

originated in Paris France

The study of structures of texts with the special attention on rules of grammar and the elements.

It is based on the linguistic theories of Ferdinand De Saussure, the father of modern linguistics. He says that language is a self-contained system of signs and everything could be analysed in terms of structure.

The term structuralism appears in French anthropologist Levi Strauss works.

Structuralists argue that novelty,  value of works can only be  in structure.

It focuses on the form of a text by looking at elements like voice, character, setting and their combination.

Structuralists try to read a poem by breaking it down little bitty components, examine the parts it is made out of and thereby understand how all other poems are assembled.(as in chemical reaction)

They are interested in identifying and analysing the structures that underline in cultural phenomena and not just literature.

They read text as a integrated system of signs. Importance is given to signs.

Ex. C-a-t rather than cat.

Text is interrelated system of signs.

They attempt to apply linguistic theory in literature ignoring author, society etc..

It was rejected, found only in a limited number of followers. But it inspired post structuralism, Deconstruction, Queer theory, anthropologists, philosophy, and cultural phenomena, literary theories of psychologists who began to apply those principles in their fields.

De Saussure came up with the idea that language is a sign system made-up of unchanging patterns and rules.

Ex.C-a-t than cat.

Language can be in any form of signaling not just a speech or words but anything that involves communication.

Ex. traffic lights, national flag

A poem is a structure constituted by units such as sounds phrases pauses punctuations and words in which every unit is connected to every other unit.

 they care about discovering the structures or rules that govern the literary works.

Ex. Narrative elements such as a plot, character, setting, point of view.

Meaning is generated through a system of structural difference and language-Saussure

three components of grammar are

phoneme: small speech sound

 morpheme: smallest meaningful graph.

syntax: study of the order of the words.

sometimes 4^th aspect is a semantics- study of meanings.

 Leo Bersani in his essay “ Is there a science of Literature?

-says that the idea of literature science at the heart of the structuralist  adventure.

Key terms

Saussure divided language into two main components: Langue and Parole.

Langue (French word): 

Language system rules are rarely altered

We unconsciously follow it (set of rules)

Combined words become sentences (use of certain words in certain ways)

It is a principle underlying parole. It is in Group.

Parole (French word): single meaningful utterance spoken.

It refers to specific utterance or everyday speech act.

 it is individual utterance.

We use words in particular context it is execution of language in the form of speech like a problem where we use tables.

We actually realize it in speech individual in context.

Saussure and  Charles Sanders Piers: popularize it these terms

Signifier:

speech sound by a sign.(Grapheme )

Ex. The word ‘tree’

it is a sign it is in material form it is something we can taste, touch, see, hear or smell.

Signified:

The concept meaning of a sign

Ex. The concept of tree

It is the concept behind the word.

It is an idea

Saussure and C.S. Piers are the two founders of Simiology.

Semiotics study of signs (Greek term)

The signs of science systems is semiotics.

Structuralism shifts from parole to langue. Structuralism shifts from fragment to totality.

Structure: a pattern of organisation of language.

Sign: a sign is made-up of both the signifier and signified.

 it is the basic element of linguistic structure.

It is the unity of signifier and signified.

signified (concept)- the concept of tree.

Signifier (sign)- the word tree sound or image

The concept of tree has a different images in different languages. Vriksha, chettu, Phed.

The structuralism views literary text as a totality, a system.

Semiology: study of signs as a subject.

It includes every kind of sign not only linguistic but also body language. Ex. traffic light

Binary opposition: Though it is used by (Prague school)Roman Jacobson the it was outlined by Saussure.

It appears in the works of Lewis Strauss on myths.

Saussure defines it as “meanings of units of language against what is not.”

the first category of words have privilege power, but the second category are derogated/ subordinated

Ex. male and female

Saussure says “meaning of signs is derived from its context/ the group to which it belongs. We can't understand could if we don't know evil. Word is defined on the basis of its opposite are structure.

In a pair one of the two terms go with each other

They are paid of words/ concepts that are opposite in meaning.

Ex. sky and earth

the sounds /s/and/z/

They organise language because so much of the world is understood based on what it is not.

Ex. heat is not cold

word is defined on the basis of its opposite-structuralists.

Function: an action that is a character takes in new folk or fairytale.

According to Vladimir Prop the number of functions in fairy tales is limited to 31.

Discourse: the texts/ narratives/ structures that make a connected dialogue

Ex. a novel is a part of literary discourse.

Saussure Arbitrariness: the relation between signifier and the signified is arbitrary.

There is no connection between sign and concept.

Communication competence: coined by Hymus Dell 1966 it includes language competence,  socio-linguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence.

It is broader than Chomsky's

Linguistic competence Vs performance

It is a concept of Noam Chomsky (America)

competence what you know- capacity mental property.

performance what you can do- actual utterance physical property.

-more recently it has been re labeled as I- language and E- language.

Synchronic and Diachronic: the concept of Saussure synchronic: study of a language at a given time.

It relates on the static side on Y- axis. Saussure favoured synchronic analysis.

Diachronic: study of a particular element to over a period (span) of time.

It relates with the evolution.

On x- axis

It is a scientific study of language change over a time.

 It includes pre history of language, etymology of language, family and theories of language.

Saussure believes  “a good synchronic approach makes a diachronic approach unnecessary.”

Ex. value of a piece changes over a time.

The gang of 4 of structuralism Levi Strauss, Lacan, Barthes, Foucault.

Structuralism contributors

Ferdinand De Saussure (Swiss linguist )began with his series of lectures on language at the university of Geneva between 1906- 11.He had a very busy moustache. He died in 1915 before he had a chance to compile his ideas on the structure of language into a book. His students compiled his lectures and published “Course in General Linguistics”( 1915)

It influences the anthropology of Levi Strauss, semiological works of Barthes, literary philosophy of Derrida, psycho analytics of Lacan, feministic Julia Kristeva.

 Roman Jacobson picked up this and developed it as structural linguistics.

“Saussure is the father of modern linguistics”-Jonathan Cullen.

Gerard Genette: French literary theorist. (narration)

Focused on narratology in his “Narrative”.

Discourse: An essay on Method(1972)

This is the three volume book of Proust’s epic “In search of lost time and Wuthering Heights. “

Aristotle’s distinction between Mimesis (pure representation) and Diegesis (narrative) can't be stained in practise. He distinguished between history and recite

History/story- story in successive events

Recite/ narration actual text meant. (Signified)

He used the term ‘focalization to distinguish the point of view. in his Narrative Discourse (1972) He distinguished between narrator and focalizer (a point of view)

Narrator- a storyteller

focaliser between multiple characters in the story.

He wrote an essay on Structuralism and literary criticism.

He says literary criticism is bricolage.

Levi Strauss adopted the ideas about the structures and rules of Saussure.

Structural anthropology about analysis of myth, rituals kingships.

In the chapter of lapensee savage, he used the term ‘bricolage” to define mythical thought.

 bricolage something made up of whatever material is available. He created the discipline ‘structural anthropology’.

TzvetanTodorov: Bulgarian structuralist.

His narrative theory is in three parts.

1 equilibrium

2.progress

3.resolution

“Introduction to literature fantastic” 1970s is the greatest work. He proposed the theory of reading based on the analysis of stories of Henry James (The figure in the carpet). He emphasised that reading, interpretation, and a descripcionare interrelated.Noam Chomsky:American linguist.

Syntactic structures(1957) is a major work in linguistics.Aspects of theory of Syntax(1966)

Theory of Generative Grammar(1966)

LAD: Language Acquisition Device is hypothetical module of human mind which has predisposition for language acquisition.

Universal Grammar: universal grammar is about the innate genetically determined language is in every human being.

X-bar theory:

X-bar theory is a generative theory of language conceived by Noam A. Chomsky.

It is a theory about the internal structure of syntactic constituents which was originally intended to place constraints on the power of phrase structure rules.

X-bar theory captures the insight that all phrases share some essential structural properties.