HISTORY AND STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA

 HISTORY AND STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA

1498 AD: invention of sea route to India by Vasco-Da-Gama. He arrived in Kozhikode (Calicut), in Malabar (present day Kerala state of India), on 20 May 1498. The King of Calicut, the Samudiri (Zamorin) gave traditional hospitality.

31st Dec 1600: Establishment of E.I.C. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), and later with East Asia. The Englishmen came to India with the purpose of business and trade. They established the British

East India Company on the 31st December 1600 which marks the beginning of the English language in India.

-Edmund Burke called EIC and its agents as "The Birds of Prey"

- Initially English Education was available only to the children of the company and Anglo Indians.

-Christian Missionaries entered India, established schools for teaching of English

1698 – Fort William was built at Calcutta.

1757- Battle of Plassey – Establishment of British rule in India followed by Battle of Baxar

1780-95 -"English" news papers were started.

1794- William Carey, an English Missionary started

First school in Bengal but the medium has Bengali.

1793- In Charter Act 1793, Wiberforce’s (person behind the abolition of slave trade), proposed to send school masters to India, but EIC refused to take responsibility of Education in India for another 20 years. He tried again in 1813, when the charter next came up for renewal.

He criticized the EIC and their rule in India for its hypocrisy and racial prejudice, while also condemning aspects of Hinduism including the caste system, infanticide, polygamy and suttee. "Our religion is sublime, pure beneficent, theirs is mean, licentious and cruel"

1797- Charles Grant, father of English in India, laid the foundation for the spread of English India

-anticipated Macaulay's minute

-He persuaded EIC & the parliament of England to impart English education to Indians

-He recommended dissemination of European literature & science through the medium of English.

-He predicted that a large number of young people would flock to English school, soon they become teachers

-Supported by local leaders such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Eshwara Chandra Vidyasagar


“Orientalists”- wants the revival of Sanskrit & Arabic

"Anglicists' - wants Western education through the medium of English


1813 Charter Act - Revised Education Policy of India by the parliament of England. A Grant of Rs. 1 lakh was allotted for education in India. Promoted the production & publication of English books in India.

1823- Eng. Education was introduced in India

1823- Ram Mohan Roy wrote to Lord Amherst that Sanskrit system of Education could only keep the Indians in darkness.

1829- Bentinck wrote to the Committee on introducing English as official language of government and that of Education.

1835 Macaulay Minute - Laid foundation for English Education (Thomas Babington Macaulay)

-It became Blueprint for Education in India

-Strongly suggested English as the median of instruction. Later supported by ‘Bentinck' and 'Auckland'.

-He wrote a letter to Bentinck on 2nd Feb 1835, which proclaimed official language policy.

- He received a reply from Bentinck on 7th Feb 1835, and got it approved

Goals of Macaulay's Minute on Education
* To create a class of interpreters between them & Indians.

*To create a class of persons, Indians in blood and color, But English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. (Baboos)

*To enrich the vernaculars by the terms of science borrowed from Western nomenclature.

He stated two objectives of Education: 1)To create a class of Baboos; 2)To create demand for the European education institutions.

-His first goal was successfully completed by Creating Baboos-English known People; Brown Sahibs - Teachers of English with Colonial mind set.

His second goal is referred to as Down ward Filteration theory". This means "Educating a few, who in turn educate others".

Phule, Lokhitwadi, Ranade protested in 1982 before the Hunter Commission against this theory.

Cleary both objectives were designed to serve the “interest of Masters, not of the subjects"

Macaulay said "When it comes, It will be the proudest day in English History"

- 6th year of schooling onwards instruction should be in English

-He says Indian histories, astronomy, medicine & other disciplines were full of errors and false hood.

-Charles Trevelyan, brother-in-law of Macaulay disapproved the teaching of Kalidasa's Sakuntala in Indian schools.

A Single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India & Arabia - Thomas Babington Macaulay

-The continuance of Sanskrit & Arabic in Indian education system, could only harm both the Indians & British government, so he recommended the closure of Sanskrit and Arabic schools, No books were to be printed in Sanskrit & Arabic, withdrawal of finance support to the teaching of these languages.

1835 - English Became officially in place of Persian in 1835.

1837 - English was used in education & courts at higher level and Vernacular at Lower level. Counts replaced English in place of Persian.


N. Krishnaswamy, a noted ELT expert termed the Indian Educational system a living monument to the mission of Macaulay

Macaulayism- refers to the policy of ostensibly eliminating indigenous culture through the planned substitution of the alien culture of a colonizing power via the education system.

Macaulay's children - refers to the people born of Indian ancestry who adopt Western Culture as lifestyle. Ex: Mulk Raj Anand portrays Bakha’s passion for fashion and modernity. (His mania for English clothes, Love for Cricket, sipping tea without blowing it cold, smoking of cigar)

In the final years of Macaulay, as a law member, he created IPC (1860) followed by CPC (1872).

His most famous work "The History of England from the accessing of James of second (1685-1702) to William-III” (a five volume work)



The Woods's Dispatch (1854)

-It is the Next Land Mark in English Education. It consolidated Macaulay’s Policy.

-Commission was setup by Bentinck.

-In 1854, Sir Charles wood, president of the Board of control of the EIC, sent a dispatch to Lord Dalhousie, which had an important effect on spreading English learning and female education (MAGNA CARTA)

-Suggested that primary schools must adopt vernacular language, High schools must adopt Anglo-Vernacular language and College level English medium for Education.

-Education is the responsibility of Local bodies, Special schools to girls, Vocational education was stressed upon.

-Grant in aid must be based on perfect religious neutrality

-Universities on the model of London University, be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras

- At least one govt. school be opened in each district.

- Entire education system under one umbrella. (Those days India including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Nepal.

-It is known as Magna-Carta, for its great impact and influence Western Education.

1857 -Three universities at Calcutta, Madras & Bombay

-Literature of English became discipline first in India on a trial basis.

In England, it became a subject at:

The University of London - 1828;

Kings College (London University) – 1831;

Oxford- 1894;

Cambridge - 1911




-The rulers started building the edifice called education from Ceiling! Universities started first, High School next, primary neglected.




1869- Lord Napier’s convocation address at Madras University. In this speech, he spelled out the objectives of European Education.



1882- Hunter commission- or Indian Education Commission 1882.

-Main aim is to prevent Indians from University Education as educated Indians are creating unrest in India. (seek no further education after the high school)

- Primary Education is the responsibility of Local Bodies and Municipalities

- English is a subject at all levels.

1902-Indian University Commission – T. Raleigh.

-Lord Curzon appointed it in 1902 to inquire the conditions and prospects of the universities established in British India.

-Recommendations: Re-organization of administration of universities and the territorial jurisdiction.


Vernacularisation:

-Dayanand Saraswati, Tagore, Gokhale, Gandhi in 19th century demanded vernacularisation.

-Gokhale asked mother tongue in Administration.

- Gandhi said the existing system of education is defective, based on foreign culture, It ignores our culture, Real education is impossible with English.


1904- Indian Universities Act -passed by Viceroy Lord Curzon, based on recommendations of Raleigh Commission.

-Hunter Commission's recommendations for proper education in India were not met with success

-passed order to control over universities.

-laboratories Introduced to improve quality of research


1904-Govt. of India Resolution on education policy - 11th March 1904

-Focus on primary Education, raised grant from 1/3 to 1/2 of expenses

-Payment by results introduced by Hunter in 1882 was Cancelled and introduced grant in aid

-Training to teachers, salary hike, reform & curriculum methodology of teaching changes.

1905-1938-National Educational Movement- Cause is Curzon's anti national Educational policy.


Three Phases:

1906-10- phase1- Bengal Partition, boycott / Swadeshi movement- National Council of Education- Jadavpur- limited to Bonged only.


1911-22- phase2- martial law in Punjab. Mont. Ford Reforms 1919 -Non Violent / Non Co-operation movement


1930-38 – phase3 –Civil disobedience by Gandhi


Three Milestones:

-Anglicist vs Orientalist debate—Finally English medium
-Extinction of Indian / indigenous education
-Conscious of Indianness, created national school



1911- Gokhale’s resolution in Imperial Assembly

about free and compulsory education.


1913- Govt. of India Resolution on education policy.

-Refused to take the responsibility of compulsory education but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy

-University in each province; expansion of lower primary schools

-World war-I delayed its resolutions.

1917-19: Calcutta Commission- Sadler Commission’s Report of 1917 (Dr. Michael Sadler)

-All the subjects except English and mathematics to be taught in mother-tongue at the secondary level. (supported bilingualism.)


1929- Hartog Committee: Primary focus on wastage and stagnation in primary education. About the growth of education in India till 1928 (focus is mainly on Primary Education).

1937- Gandhiji’s Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, 1937.


1938- Basic Education Commission- Dr.Zakir Hussain.

-Recommended- Seven year course for Basic Education, emphasize to mother tongue.


1944- Sargent Report: (Sir John Sargent, the Educational Advisor to the Government of India)

-Gave suggestions from pre primary to technical & Higher education.

-CABE report on post war education


- Minimum length of education at university be 3 years.

-6-14 age children – compulsory Education

1948- UEC- Dr.S.Radhakrishnan - first committee in free India.

1950- Constitution came into force 26 Jan, 1950; It is decided to keep English as official language for 15 years (up to 195) -Article. 343(2) in part XVIII.

Controversy over retention of English got intense. Maulana Azad, Nehru, Rajaji supported English after independence, but Gandhi opposed.

The Dravida Munnetra Kazagham and C. Rajagopalachari, for example, demanded that the Constitution should be amended and English should be made the official language of India.

Article 343(1) of constitution- Hindi would take over English as official language .The plan to develop Hindi as official language in 15 years was opposed by Non- Hindi speaking (southern) states especially Tamilnadu.

The first anti-Hindi-imposition agitation was launched in 1937, in opposition to the introduction of compulsory teaching of Hindi in the schools of Madras Presidency by the first Indian National Congress government led by C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). This move was immediately opposed by E.

V. Ramasamy (Periyar) and the opposition Justice Party. The agitation lasted three years.

On reaching the deadline of 15 years in 1965, in Madras, people revolted with the slogan “Hindi Never, English Ever”. Anti-Hindi feeling that several Tamil youth, including four students, burned themselves to death in protest against the official language policy. Two Tamil ministers, C. Subramaniam and Alagesan, resigned from the Union Cabinet. The agitation continued for about two months, taking a toll of nearly 70 lives through police firings.

Nehru’s the Official Languages Act, 1963 assured to continue English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965. But it didn’t satisfied the DMK. In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states and territories such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry, Nagaland, Mizoram and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also turned violent. As a result, the proposal was dropped.


The Official Languages Act was eventually amended (section 3 of the 1963 act) in 1967 by the Congress government headed by Indira Gandhi to guarantee the indefinite use of Hindi and English as official languages. This effectively ensured the current "virtual indefinite policy of bilingualism" of the Indian Republic.

Anti Hindi agitations 1968, radical students did not satisfy with the amendment and they demanded scrapping of the 3 language formula and an end to teaching of Hindi, abolishing the use of Hindi commands in the NCC, banning of Hindi films and songs and closure of the Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachara Sabha. Agitation turned violent. On 23 January 1968, the following resolution was passed in the Legislative Assembly:

“The Three-Language Policy was scrapped and Hindi was eliminated from the curriculum. Only English and Tamil were to be taught and the use of Hindi commands in the NCC was banned. Tamil was to be introduced as the medium of instruction in all colleges and as the "language of administration" within five years, the Central Government was urged to end the special status accorded to Hindi in the Constitution and "treat all languages equally", and was urged to provide financial assistance for development of all languages mentioned in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution”. These measures satisfied the agitators and "normalcy" returned by February 1968.

Anti Hindi agitations 1986: as a result of NPE86, Navodaya schools were introduced but DMK’s MG Ramachandran and Karunana Nidhi opposed. Turned violent and 21 persons committed suicide by self-immolation.. Rajiv Gandhi assured Members of Parliament from Tamil Nadu that Hindi would not be imposed. As part of the compromise, Tamil Nadu became the only state in India without Navodaya schools

Anti Hindi agitations 2014, In 2014, the Home Ministry ordered that "government employees and officials of all ministries, departments, corporations or banks, who have

made official accounts on social networking sites should use Hindi, or both Hindi


and English but give priority to Hindi". This move was immediately opposed by all the political parties in Tamil Nadu.

Note: These protests ensured the continuous official usage of English
Official languages (8th Schedule):

Originally 14 languages were included in the Constitution in 1950. In 1967, the Sindhi language added via 21st Constitutional Amendment Act; In 1992, Konkani, Manipuri (Meitei), and Nepali included via 71st Constitutional Amendment Act. In 2003, Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santali included via 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act. Note: The word Oriya was changed to Odia by the 96th Constitutional Amendment Act in 2011


1953- UGC formation- Dec 1953, Education Minister’s conference-

1955- H N Kunzru Committee (Hruday Nath Kunzru)

1956- UGC Act Section 3- The UGC was formally established only in November 1956 as a statutory body of the Government of India through an Act of Parliament.



1956-Three year degree course estimates committee- C. D. Deshmukh

-Based on the education minister’s conference Sep- 1956

1958- CIEFL- HLN Shastry


1961- NCERT established


1963- RIE Bangalore establishment


1964- Dr. Doulat Singh Kothari- Indian Education Commission. (1964-66).

- Introduced 10+2+3 system

- Supported 3-language formula:

-1 language- I to IV;

-2 languages- V to VIII;

-3 languages- IX to X.

- Free and compulsory educations up to 14 years of age

- English is medium of instruction at higher level.


- Kothari commission quoted “Destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms.”


1972- Eshwari Bhai Committee

-Formal and Non Formal Education 1980- ELT- Language cells


1986 – NPE- Rajiv Gandhi Govt

-supported English as scientific language

-Formation of Navodaya and rural universities.


1986- Rammurthy Commission

- To review the NPE 8, submitted report in 1990


1987-CDC by UGC-


2002- Free and Compulsory Education for all (6-14 years); added in Article 21A through 86th amendment act.