Literary theory and Criticism (Greek and Latin)

 

LITERARY THEORY AND CRITICISM

A Critic is an ideal reader. Criticism is not negative in connotation.  Dryden used the word “Criticism” in print for the first time. The word criticism derives from a Greek word, kritikós (able to judge) or krites (a person who offers  reasoned  judgment or analysis).

What is literary theory? (lens)

Ø It is a set of ideas, tools and principals used in interpretation of works of literature.

Ø This theory is a camera lens or eyeglass, which is used by the critic to view a work.

Ø What we see through each lens (each theory) becomes the focus of our literary criticism

Ø Many theorists primarily concerned with a phenomena other than literature.

 Ex: Psychoanalytic theory– used human kind,

       Marxist theory– used human existence.

       Structuralist theory(1920s)- used structures

       Feminist theory-  focus on gender

What is literary criticism? (analysis)

Ø It is an instrument or act of analysis in the study of literature.

Ø Its focus is not fault finding or praise showering.

Ø It is about evaluating, understanding or estimating the literature.

Ø Its focus is on the nature and frame work of a work.

Is Literary theory and criticism same?

Ø Literary criticism is the study, evaluation and interpretation of literature, while literary theory is philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods.

Ø Literary criticism is the practical  application of literary theories.

Ø Criticism deals directly with particular literary works, while theory may be more general or abstract.

Ø Scholars often blend two or more theories into their interpretations of literary texts.

Ø Few scholars believe that they are same.

 

Function of criticism?

Ø Function of criticism is not fault finding or praise showering.

Ø The two functions of criticism are judgment and appreciation.

Ø Plato assigns a didactic and utilitarian function; he banished poets from his “Republic”

Ø Aristotle assigns legislative and judicial function; he supported poets  in his “Poetics”

Ø Ben Johnson considers the judgment of poets to be the duty of faculty of poets, not of critics,

Ø Neo Classicists believe that poetry both instructs and delights.

Ø Romantics believe the chief function is aesthetic,

Ø According to Hazlitt, function of criticism is impressionistic.

Ø According to Schreiber, function of criticism  is to

(i)  To distinguish between a good and bad book

(ii)                 To recognize ourselves and get full value out of literary quality.

(iii)              To open up for us whole world of pleasure and imaginative experience and intellectual stimulus.

Ø Victorians attempted to discipline the criticism.

Ø Arnold defines criticism as “A disinterested endeavor to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought of in the world, and thus to establish a current of fresh and true ideas.” (Here ‘disinterest’ refers to being an impartial and just reader.)

Ø Arnold says “Knowledge and ever fresh knowledge must be the critics great concern for himself”

Ø Walter Pater in ‘History of Renaissance’ remarks, to seek the virtue of the poet, or the painter, to disengage it, to set it forth- are the three stages of the critic’s duty.

Ø T S Eliot defines the function of criticism “Commendation and exposition of works of art by means of written words”. In ‘Frontiers of criticism’, he modifies it as promoting the understanding and enjoyment of Literature

Ø I A Richards says “To set up a critic, is to set up a judge of values”

Ø F R Leavis says “Evaluation to be the concern of the critic”

Ø Neo Critics (Ransom, Brooks, Tate) says “Explication and Close scrutiny of test as critic’s duty”

Ø According to structuralists, “Dissection of Articulation of underlying structures of the text”

Ø Deconstructionists believe that the text deconstructs itself, and the critics’ duty is to understand the deconstructive process.

 

Principles of Criticism:

1.   Principle of Truth: Poetic truth is different from truth of science; It is the truth of idea. It is final test of merit in literature.

2.   Principle of Symmetry: Without organization of material, literature can’t appeal.

3.   Principle of Idealism: Prof. Hiriyanna (Indian Aesthetics) regards art as idealization of experience, excluding unpleasant things.

 

Greek & Latin criticism

English Criticism has its root in the ancient Greek period. The first recorded instances of criticism go back to the events in ancient Athens, during the festival of Greek god for wine and fertility, Dionysus, which were originated as contests, requiring an official judgment as to which author produced best drama.

Aristophanes (5^th century BC):

Ø Aristophanes (Greek critic) is regarded as the first critic.

Ø Aristophanes’ comedy, the Wasps, is the first extensive and thorough work of political (and social) criticism in the Western literary tradition.

Ø In his play “Frogs (first performed in 405 BC)”, he discussed the relative merits of  Aeschylus and Euripides.

Ø Aeschylus represents traditional; and Euripides represents democratic.

Plato (428-347BC):

Ø He compared poetry to Painting.

Ø Plato is disciple of Socrates.

(SPAàSocrates-Plato-Aristotle)

Ø Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy.

Ø A.N Whitehead, a mathematician, and a philosopher claimed that “Western philosophy is a series of footnotes to Plato".

Ø Philip Sydney praised Plato as “Of all the philosophers, I have esteemed him most worthy of reverence and with great reason, since of all the philosophers he is the most poetical”

Ø Atkins said, “with him literary theory really begins”

Ø Plato’s Dialogues are in the form of Q/A, or discussions with Socrates. Ex: Ion, Republic, Laws…

 

Plato on Poetry:

Ø Plato attacked poetry on three basic grounds: education, philosophy and moral point of view.

Ø Plato believed that poetry is in the form of mimetic and poets are liars.

Ø Mimesis: Art produces or imitates physical reality. Plato is the first to use this term.

Ø Theory of imitation: According to Plato, art deals with imitation of imitation; or imitation of shadow of shadows, that is poetry is thrice removed from reality. 

Ø Triad of Beds/Chairs:

Bed by God- Idea (original)

Carpenter creates bed- Object (imitation)

Painter paints bed- object of representation

( imitation of imitation)

Ø He believed that most of art must be banned because it is not important for an ideal society.

Ø He classified art as two types: Fine arts(literature, painting, sculpture, music) and Useful Art(medicine, agriculture, cooking).

Ø According to Plato, Function of Poetry is to instruct, so he ranked pleasure as low.

Ø Poetry is immoral: It presents gods and heroes as susceptible to vices.

Ø Poetry is mother of all lies.-Plato

Ø In his “Republic” Plato says, “Poet is inferior to Philosopher. Poetry and Poets will have no place in the ideal republic.”

Ø Poetry is 3 types.

Purely lyrical- Lyric

Purely imitated- Drama

Mixed- Epic

Ø In his book “Ion”,  A singer(Ion) discusses with Socrates (it is in dialogic form)

Muse inspires Poet à

Poet passes it to Rhapsode (singer)à

Singer affects spectator

(Plato compares this process to a metaphor of magnet which attracts first ring- second ring- third ring)

Ø He says poet writes not because of his thought, but because he is inspired suddenly from divine power. This suddenness cannot be truthful. Having no rational involvement from the poet’s part (impulse of the moment), Poetry can’t be relied upon.

 

Plato on Drama:

Ø Plato labeled drama as branch of poetry

Ø Drama is to be staged.  Its approval and disapproval depends upon the audience.  To convince the audience dramatists use some cheap techniques like quarrels, lamentations, thunder and sounds of animals. Such plays should be censored.

Ø Audience while watching characters of cowards, knaves and criminals tend to become one such character.  A play should have good characters.

Ø Plato is against the pleasure a tragedy and comedy gives.  Human beings are full of feelings like anger, fear, grief, etc., when they are in excess there is pleasure.  In comedy, people laugh when a coward act like a brave man or when a criminal acts like an honest man.  These characters are not to be laughed at but they should be pitied.  A comic character must be lovable.

 

Plato on Education:

Ø Cave Image: (In 7^th book of The Republic), he used cave image as metaphor for education. Enlightened person has a moral responsibility to the unfortunate people, still in the cave, to bring them into light.

 

Plato on Music:

Ø In Republic, Plato banished 5 types of music (There are seven music modes)

Ø Only two types, Dorian (used in times of war) and Phrygian (used in times of peace and reflection), are allowed

 

Aristotle (384-322BC):

Ø He compared poetry to music.

Ø He is student of Plato and teacher of Alexander.

Ø His famous works are “Poetics (poetry)” and “Rhetoric (speaking)”.

Aristotle on tragedy:

Ø He called poetry and rhetoric are productive sciences.

Ø He infers that poetry is more philosophical and serious, asserted superiority of poetry over philosophy.

Ø In his Poetics, he says Plato’s mimetic as creative concept.

Ø Poetic truth is higher than historical truth—Aristotle.

Ø Good art is neither useless not dangerous, but natural and beneficial – Aristotle in  Republic.

Ø Poet imitates 3 objects:

Things as they are/were

Things as they are said/to be

Things as they are ought to be

 

Aristotle on tragedy:

Ø Aristotle discusses  tragedy,  epic  and  comedy  show  elaborately in “Poetics”

Ø Poetry imitates

noble action of good people --- Epic & Tragedy

mean action of bad people – Comedy & Satire.

Ø Epic and Tragedy are superior to Comedy and Satire.

Ø Imitation involves three things

Ethos- Ethical values

Pathos- Emotions and feelings, sufferings

Praxis- Actions

 

Aristotle’s definition of tragedy:

Ø His definition of Tragedy appears in the 4^th chapter of Poetics (incomplete work with 26 chapters).

Ø Aristotle has defined “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic embellishment, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of the action, not of narration; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions” (Prof. Butcher’s translation).

Ø Tragedy is even greater to Epic- Aristotle.

Six elements of tragedy

Ø Tragedy is not representation of men or of character; rather it represents a sphere of action of life.

Ø This notion of action includes:

Means of Imitation: Diction, Song

Manner of Imitation: Spectacle

Objects of Imitation: Plot, Character &Thought

Ø Thus the six elements of Tragedy are:

1.     Plot

2.     Verbal expression/Diction

3.     Character

4.     Thought

5.     Visual Adornment/ Spectacle

6.     Song compose or Melody

Note: PVC-TVS

Structure of Plot:

Ø  Aristotle says the plot is the soul of Tragedy.

Ø  Two parts of plot are:

Complication: Tying the knot. All action from beginning to turning point. (rising action)

Denouement: untying the knot. All action from turning point to the end. (falling action)

Ø Three unities of drama:

Unity of action: All actions are connected with one another and appear as one whole.

Unity of time: conformity between the time taken by the events of the play and their representation on the stage.

Unity of place: conformity between the scene of tragic events and the time taken by them to happen.

 

Terms related to Tragedy:

Ø Mimesis/Imitation(showing): It shows rather than tells.

Ø Diegesis/Narration(telling): Telling a story by a narrator

Ø Enactment (performance): not a narrative

Ø Catharsis (Purgation)- Tragedy raises emotions (not creates) of pity and fear; and then purifies the emotions(purgation). It is to leave with ‘calm of mind’ (=purification of thoughts).

Ø Hamartia: Greek word which means error of judgment/ tragic flaw of a great man. The tragic hero, usually of noble status, falls because of his mistake.

Ø Peripeteia: Reversal of fortune/intension, denouement. French meaning is unknotting.

Ø Anagnorisis:  Knowing back- recognition of fall/destruction.

Ø Dues Ex Machina: Latin word for ‘a god from a machine.’ It is a plot device. Aristotle was the first to use this term to solve the plot in tragedies. A person or thing that appears suddenly and provides an artificial solution.

Ex: Navy officer rescues children in Golding’s Lord of the flies.

 

 

Aristotle on style:

Ø Epic: It is older than comedy/tragedy. Rare unfamiliar words are suitable.

Ø Tragedy: It is next to Epic. It represents men as noble as they can. Metaphysical words are suited.

Ø Comedy: It ridicules general vices.  It represents men as worse than they are.   Characters in comedy have a defect, which is not painful/ destructive.

Ø Satire: It ridicules personalities.

Ø Lyric: compound words are best suitable.

 

Aristotle’s defense of art 

Ø Rejection of Plato’s Dualism: Plato believed in mind body dualism (mind is superior to body) but for Aristotle man is not an embodied intellect. Longing for the spiritual release of death, but rather an animal.

Ø Rejection of Plato’s Rationalism:
We must study humans as we would study other animals to discover what their “nature” is. 

Ø Rejection of Plato’s mimesis: Like Plato, he sees poetry as imitative (but positively says creative). In contrast to Plato, he sees poetry as a positive function in the political state.

Ø Art is not useless: It is natural for human beings to imitate. Art production and training is a necessary part of any education.

Ø Art is not deceptive: Introduces the concept of “Organic Unity” – the idea that in any good work of art each of the parts must contribute to the overall success of the whole

Ø Sensuous art is not a bad thing: Good art was neither useless nor dangerous, but rather natural and beneficial.

Ø Good art is tied to truth and morality: Drama always teaches morality

 

Types of plot:

Ø Plot is synthesis of acts and scenes.

Ø Simple plot: No puzzling situations.

Ø Complex plot: puzzling situations. Complex plots are best suitable for Tragedy. In tragedy, ‘bad happens to good people, good to bad people’.

Ø Double plot: In Comedy, ‘good things happen to good people, bad things to bad people.’  

 

Latin criticism

Horace (65-8BC):

Ø Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) is a Roman Classicist of Augustan age.

Ø Wrote ‘Ars Poetica (The art of Poetry) which has significant statements of great poets.

Ø Poem is not mere imitation, it is a creative adaptation. Poem must have original unity.

Ø Function of criticism is to “instruct and delight”

Ø Rules of poetry has 3 things:

Poesis =          subject

Poema =          Form  

Poeta  =          Poet

Ø  Horace says, “Perfection is not possible; minor faults in poetry may be forgiven because even good homer nods”

Ø  A play should have more or less than 5 acts and must not have more than three characters. He introduced division of Acts in a play.

Ø Ut pictura poesis is a Latin phrase literally meaning "as is painting so is poetry". He compare poem to painting(same as Plato).

Ø  'Even Homer nods' is a term for a continuity error that has its origins in Homeric epic. There are numerous continuity errors in Homer  that can be described as "nods"

Ø  Ab ovo (from the egg): From the beginning. A latin term to refer a story which starts from the beginning of the events. It is opposite to In medias res.

Ø  In medias res: In the midst of things. He demanded epic should begin in medias res. Horace used it in Ars Poetica.

Ø  "A poem should be wordless / As the flight of birds."- Ars poetica.

Quintilian (35 AD- 95AD)

Ø Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian) is a Roman Classicist of Augustan age.

Ø Wrote Instituto Oratio (12 books)

Ø He believes that entire education process from infancy to death to train as orator.

Ø He says there is no logic between art of oratory and art of writing.

Ø Says well arranged words give clarity of writer’s thoughts.

Longinus (213 – 273 AD)

Ø Cassius Longinus is a Greek philosopher and critic.

Ø Eunapius calls him "a living library" and "a walking museum”

Ø James Scott said, ‘‘He is First Romatic Critic”.

Ø Abercrombie said, “He is first comparative critic of Literature.”

Ø He wrote famous book in literary criticism, “On the Sublime” (Greek title is Peri hypsous)

Ø On the Sublime is addressed to his friend ‘Terention’.

Ø Sublime is grandeur of thought, emotion, and spirit that characterizes great literature. (simply quality of greatness)

Ø He emphasized figures of speech. Chief figures of speech that make for sublimity are: rhetorical question, asyndeton, hyperbaton, periphrasis

Ø He defined sublimity as “The echo of greatness of spirit”

Ø After him , Burke and Kant talked about “Beauty and Sublime”

Ø Two types of sublime:

False sublime: Bombastic language expressions

True sublime: Pleases all and pleases always

Ø He listed 5 principles of Sublime:

1.Grandeour of thought,

2.Vehement of Thought

     (these two from nature)

3.Nobility of Phrasis(diction)

4. Construction of figures of speech general effect of elevation (schemata)

5. Dignity (composition)

   (these three from sublimity)